A celestial globe commissioned by Abu al-Fatḥ Manuchihr Khan, Governor of Khurasan, signed by Hasan ibn Sa‘d al-Qa‘īnī, Master Mālik Husayn Naqqāsh Isfahānī, and Rezvan Beg Zarneshan, Mashhad, Persia, dated: 1043 AH / 1632-33 AD.
Provenance:
Wan Dengah Ben Salih Adilnor, Kuala Terengganu, Malaya, bought in Mecca in 1327 AH / 1909 AD.
Savage-Smith states Aratus described Andromeda as having her arms outstretched and bearing bonds or fetters, for according to legend she was bound to a rock as a sacrifice to the sea-monster Cetus, by her parents Cassiopeia and Cepheus, until she was rescued by Perseus, whose figure can be seen beneath Andromeda’s.
On the Manuchihr globe she is depicted with her arms outstretched, but with no chains. To the south along her side is the northern of the two fishes comprising the constellation Pisces. Two additional representations of Andromeda are found in al-Ṣūfī manuscripts, in which a fish lies across her feet or across her body. These conceptions are drawn from the Bedouin rather than the Ptolemaic traditions.
The constellation contains 24 formed stars including the one which is outside the figure, above the northern hand. The title written near her head reads kawākib al-mar’ah al-musalsalah (the constellation of the chained woman). The star in her head [α And or δ Pegasi; Sirrah] is labeled surrat al-faras (navel of the horse), for it is shared with Pegasus. Rijl al-musalsalah (the foot of the Chained One) is the title given the star in her eastern foot [γ And]. Al-Ṣūfī says it is given this name on astrolabes, and it occurs on Ulugh Beg’s personal copy of al-Ṣūfī’s treatise.
The star on her waist near the fish is labeled baṭn al-ḥūt (belly of the fish [β And; Mirach], reflecting the Bedouin image of a large fish. The name was given also to the twenty-eighth lunar mansion. Al-Ṣūfī also called the star, in addition to the two previous names, al-rishā’ (the rope) which is also a name for the twenty-eighth lunar mansion.
The fications, consists of four stars. According to Emilie Savage-Smith, Aratus called it δελτωτὀυ, and mythographers suggested that Hermes placed it above the head of Aries so that its brightness would mark the dimness of Aries and so that its triangular shape would form the first letter of the name for Zeus (Δίς, an older form of Ζεύς).
The constellation is labeled kawākib al-muthallath, (the constellation of the triangle). The star at the top of the triangle is called ra’s al-muthallath (the apex of the triangle [α Trianguli]. Al-Ṣūfī adds that this star, together with the most northerly of the three at the base, were traditionally called al-anīsān (the two friends) [αβ Tri].
According to Emilie Savage-Smith, Aries (the Ram) is the first of the zodiacal signs, having been at one time the sign in which the vernal equinox occurred. Aratus placed the Ram near Andromeda and the Triangle. This is the legendary Ram that bore the golden fleece, the object of the Argonaut’s quest; it was the Ram that carried Phrixus and Helen through the Hellespont. The Ram was sacrificed to Zeus, who placed it among the heavens, though others say that the ram gave its golden fleece to Phrixus as a memorial and then passed up to the heavens of its own accord. Hyginus adds the story that when Dionysus attacked Africa the army found themselves without water, a ram showed them the way to water, for which reason Dionysus placed the ram in the heavens so that when the sun was in that constellation all living things would be refreshed and so that it would be the chief of all the signs since it had been the best leader of his army.
On the Manuchihr globe the constellation is labeled kawākib al-ḥamal (the constellation of the young ram). The constellation consists of 13 formed stars and 5 unformed ones. Of the unformed, four are in a group over the rump and one is on top the head. Three stars are labeled, all reflecting traditional Arab imagery. Of the two stars very close together in the horns, the one closest to the outside of the horns [β Arietis] is called muqaddam al-sharaṭayn (the anterior one of the two signals). The second star of the pair in the horns [γ Arietis] is labeled al-mu’akhkhar (the posterior) instead for mu’akhkhar al-sharatayn (the posterior of the two signals). The name al-sharaṭayn (the two signals) is the name of the first lunar mansion, which derived originally from these two stars.
The large star at the top of the head, the first of the unformed stars, is labeled al-nāṭiḥ (that which butts or gores). This is α Arietis, whose modern name Hamal derives from the word for ram used for the entire constellation. Al-Ṣūfī used al-nāṭiḥ for a star name, while most of the writers in the Arabic world used it as another name for the first lunar mansion; says Emilie Savage-Smith.
According to Aratus the Bull, ταυρος, is found crouching at the feet of the charioteer and with whom Taurus shares a star. Aratus adds that the Bull’s head is well marked by the group of stars called the Hyades. This star group was one of the ones mentioned by Homer as were the Pleiades, which are also in Taurus. The legend of Europa and the bull was commonly linked to this constellation. In the star group of the Hyades, Hesiod names only five stars: Phaisule, Koronis, Klaeia, Phaio, and Eudora, and for him their cosmical setting was a time for ploughing. Later mythographers counted seven Hyades and made them nymphs who nursed Dionysus. They were named Eudora, Ambrosia, Koronis, Pedile, Polyxo, Phyto, and Thyone. They were also said to be sisters who cried themselves to death when their brother Hyas was killed hunting. The word ὑάδες (Hyades) is according to some derived from ὑέιν (to rain), although others give an alternative derivation from ὑς (swine), since it was sometimes thought to be a sow with four young. Cicero says the word comes from hyein, for they bring rain “while our nation stupidly names them the Suckling-pigs, as though the same Hyades were derived from the word for ‘pig’ and not from ‘rain’”.
In Islamic representations only the first half of a charging bull is depicted, following Ptolemy’s description. On the Manuchihr globe the constellation is labeled kawākib al-thawr (the constellation of the Bull). The constellation consists of 32 formed stars for Taurus and 11 unformed stars, one near the western hoof of the bull (in the line of single degree graduations of the equator), two above the head of Orion whose figure is beneath the bull’s horns, and eight between the horns, extending into the line of the ecliptic.
The largest star of the five on the head is labeled al-dabarān, which is also known as ‘ayn al-thawr (the eye of the bull). It was numbered fourteenth in Taurus and is the thirteenth brightest star in the heavens [α Tauri, Aldebaran]. Al-Ṣūfī says it is a bright red large star traditionally called al-dabarān from a root meaning “to follow”, because it followed the Pleiades, adding that al-dabarān is the name of the fourth lunar mansion and is used on astrolabes; says Emilie Savage-Smith.
According to Emilie Savage-Smith, the twins, which Aratus called δίδυμοι, were identified by later mythographers with various pairs including Apollo and Heracles, and Castor and Pollux. The latter were the most affectionate of all brothers and were placed in the heavens as a record of unselfish friendship. The myth of Castor and Pollux gave rise to the modern names for the two most prominent stars in the constellation. The twins were described in Greek literature as one having his arms around the other, as they appear on the Manuchihr globe. The constellation of the twins seems to go back to Babylonian texts.
The constellation on the Manuchihr globe is titled kawākib al-taw’amayn (the constellation of the twins). Al-Ṣūfī employed the name al-taw’amayn (the two twins) for the constellation instead for al-jawzā’. This name is the Arabic translation of the Ptolemaic δίδυμοι (twins). However, later astronomers returned to the early Bedouin name for the region (al-jawzā’) for the name of the constellation as well as the corresponding zodiacal house. The meaning of al-jawzā’ is somewhat obscure and probably comes from a root meaning “pair” and is the traditional Bedouin name for the region, as al-Biruni notes. The name al-jawzā’ possibly referred to a large feminine figure envisioned in this region of the heavens in pre-Islamic Arabia.
Gemini is composed of 18 formed stars and seven unformed ones. Of the unformed ones. Over the head of the westernmost twin reads the label ra’s al-taw’am al-muqaddam (the head of the foremost twin), referring to the first star, the one in the forehead [α Geminorum, Castor]. The star in the face of the eastern twin is labeled ra’s al-taw’am al-mu’akhkhar (the head of the rear twin), the second star of the constellation [β Gem, Pollux]. Both labels reflect the Ptolemaic constellation image. Moreover, each of the two stars in the two feet of the eastern twin [γξ Gem] is labeled with the Bedouin name min al-han‘ah (of al-han‘ah). This term is also the name of the sixth lunar mansion and gave rise to the modern name for the star γ Gem, Alhena.
According to Emilie Savage-Smith, in the Hellenistic world this constellation, the most inconspicuous of all zodiacal signs, was usually called καρκἱνος (a crab), latinized as Cancer. Aratus calls it not only καρκἱνος, but the manger or crib (φἀτνη) between two asses. This image of the crib and asses was common in later poetry. Theocritus says “the clouds disperse this way and that, the bears are seen again, and between the asses the dim crib, betokening that all is fair for voyaging”. Mythographers said that Dionysus placed the two asses in the heavens for they had helped him flee across a swamp to a temple in order to restore his sanity. Another story says that the two asses brayed so loudly when Zeus was fighting the Giants, that the Giants took flight and were defeated. The crab was explained as being one which had snapped at the foot of Heracles (Hercules) from the swamp when he fought the Lernacan Hydra. Ptolemy named the constellation Cancer and noted that its first star was nebulous and called the crib latinized as Praesepe.
On the Manuchihr globe the constellation is labeled kawākib al-saraṭān (the constellation of the crab), and consists of nine formed stars and four unformed ones, the latter being the two above the head and the two near the southern claw. The three stars in a row across the breast of the crab bear names derived from Greek concepts of the constellation. The middle star of these three is the open cluster and is labeled al-ma‘laf (a manger, or stable [M44, Praesepe]), as termed by al-Ṣūfī. The two stars on either side of the Manger [γδ Cancri], were called by Aratus and Ptolemy “asses”. Al-Ṣūfī also termed the two stars al-himārayn (the two asses). Thus on the globe they are labeled al-ḥimār al-shimālī (the northern ass) and al-ḥimār al-janūbī (the northern ass) respectively.
Aratus associated the Lion with the sun’s hottest path. Greek mythographers said that Leo was the Nemean lion killed by Heracles during his first labor.
The constellation of Leo consists of 27 formed stars and 8 unformed ones. The latter are the two over the back of Leo, the three under the belly and in front of the hind legs, and the three above the tail between Leo and Virgo and Ursa Major.
On the Manuchihr globe the constellation is labeled kawākib al-asad (the constellation of the lion). A larger lion was seen in this region of the sky in the Bedouin tradition, only part of which overlaps with the Ptolemaic Leo. The star on the mouth farthest from the ecliptic is labeled mankhar al-asad (the nose of the lion [κ Leonis]). The star near the eyes is labeled ra’s al-asad al-shimālī (the northern head of the lion [μ Leo, Rasalas]), and another one nearby is labeled ra’s al-asad al-janūbī (the southern head of the lion [ε Leo, Algenubi]). The very large star of the two contiguous ones on the upper part of the lower forearm is termed qalb al-asad (the heart of the lion [α Leo]). This first magnitude star was also called al-malakī (the royal one) from Ptolemy’s term βασιλίσκος (a little king), hence its modern name Regulus. The large star on the rump is labeled ẓahr al-asad (the back of the lion [δ Leo]). All of these star names reflect the Greek leonine outline transposed over the larger Arab one.
The star in the tail, however, is titled ṣarfah [β Leo, Denebola], which reflects the Bedouin tradition, according to al-Ṣūfī and al-Bīrūnī because of the change in the weather from heat with its rising at dawn before the sun and the change from cold weather with its setting at dawn. As part of the image of the larger lion of the Bedouin tradition, this star was called “the seed of the lion” (qanb al-asad) according to al-Ṣūfī, who added by way of explanation “that is to say, his scrotum” (wi‘ā qaḍībi-hi).
Savage-Smith states that in Hellenistic times this constellation was described as a maiden (Virgo in Latin), with wings, holding in her hand an ear of wheat (Spica in Latin). Aratus adds that she was also called “Justice” and dwelt on earth until the coming of the Bronze Age when she ascended to the heavens. In her role as Justice she was later associated with the Scales (Libra). The association of an ear of wheat with a maiden was also a symbol of the harvest, and indeed the autumnal equinox occurs in this sign. Mythographers associated various figures with the maiden, including Demeter (because of the wheat) and Erigone, daughter of Icarus. The Arabic translation of the Greek word was al-‘adhrā’, but the Bedouin name for the region soon replaced it in the literature. Thus al-sunbulah (the ear of wheat), probably of ancient Sumerian origin, became the standard name for the constellation and the zodiacal house.
Al-Bīrūnī describes the Ptolemaic figure as “in the form of a maid with two wings, in a flowing skirt and in her hand an ear or two of wheat directed to the bottom of her skirt”. On the Manuchihr globe the constellation is labeled kawākib al-‘adhrā’ (the constellation of Virgo) and is depicted with wings, with her northern arm extending toward Boötes with an ear of wheat in her lower hand. It is composed of 26 formed stars and six unformed ones. The latter are the three along the southern arm (in the large graduated portion of the ecliptic) and the three south of the southern hand on the other side of the ecliptic.
There is a star which is labeled simāk a‘zal (an unarmed simāk). The name simāk is of ancient possibly Babylonian origin and its meaning has been obscured with time. In the Bedouin tradition this simāk represents one of the hind legs of the very large lion. The other hind leg of the lion was formed by the other star bearing the name al-simāk, Arcturus al-simāk al-rāmiḥ, which can be seen in a direct line due north of Spica, at the hemline of Boötes. Of the star called simāk in Virgo, al-Ṣūfī says: They call it al-a‘zal (unarmed) because it is opposite al-simāk al-rāmiḥ which is called rāmiḥ (armed) because the lance (rumḥ) is on its right; and these are two bright stars [both called simāk], one of which is near the foot of the Howler [Boötes], whom they call the ox-driver, and the other one is in the zodiac and is called “unarmed” because there is no weapon accompanying it.
The “unarmed simāk” in Virgo gave its name to the fourteenth lunar mansion. The large star in the northern wing was called in Greek “the vintager” (in Latin, Vindemiatrix), but bears no traditional Bedouin name and seems not to have been as important to Bedouin imagery; says Emilie Savage-Smith.
Savage-Smith states that in Greek times, as in much earlier Sumerian times, the constellation now known as Libra was seen as the two claws of the scorpion, with Scorpio and Libra combined essentially into one constellation. The concept of the asterism as a balance or scales, which was a later introduction, calls to mind the equality of day and night at the autumnal equinox, which occurs at the break between the House of Virgo and the House of Libra. Hyginus states “this sign is divided into two parts on account of the great spread of the claws. One part of it our writers have called the Balance. But the whole constellation together was put in the sky, it is said, for the following reasons”. He then recounts that Orion boasted he could kill anything on earth. Earth, angered at this, sent the Scorpion, which is said to have killed him. Zeus then placed Scorpio in the heavens as a lesson to men not to be too self-confident. Artemis, who had suffered an insult from Orion, requested Zeus that it be placed so that when Scorpio rises, Orion sets.
On the Manuchihr globe the name of the constellation is kawākib al-mīzān (the constellation of the balance). The names of stars in Libra all reflect the Greek tradition. The large star in the pan to the north is labeled kiffah al-shimālī (the northern plate of the balance [β Librae]). The large star on the other pan is termed kiffah al-janūbī (the southern plate of the balance [α 1, 2 Librae]).
Libra is composed of eight formed stars and nine unformed ones. The latter group consists of the pair, one on either side of the lines suspending the northern pan, the pair on either side of the northern claw of Scorpio, one in front of the mouth of Scorpio, one at the suspensory device, the pair, one on either side of the southern claw of Scorpio, and the large star to the south of Libra.
According to Emilie Savage-Smith, in ancient Mesopotamia a large scorpion in this region of the heavens was apparently associated with the darkness which comes on as the year approaches the winter solstice, and it is one of the most frequently depicted zodiacal signs extant in Babylonian remains. In Greek literature it was called “scorpion”. The Ptolemaic Scorpio in the star catalog covers a smaller area than the original scorpion asterism of Sumerian origin, for the constellation Libra was formed from part of the larger scorpion. The mythographers associated with it the legend of the scorpion sent by Artemis to kill Orion. The Greek word for scorpion was translated by the common Arabic word ‘aqrab, also meaning scorpion, as evidenced in the title of the constellation written on the Manuchihr globe kawākib al-‘aqrab (the constellation of the scorpion).
On the globe the constellation is composed of 21 formed stars and three unformed ones as cataloged by Ptolemy, al-Ṣūfī and Ulugh Beg. A star is labeled qalb al-‘aqrab (heart of the scorpion) which was the traditional Arab name given the bright red star called by Ptolemy “Antares and is used as the name of the star today. The two stars on the tip of the tail were called al-shawlah (the raised tail [of the scorpion]) and formed the nineteenth lunar mansion [λν Sco; Shaula].
The Manuchihr Globe 