Constellation 30. al-rāmī, The Archer [Sagittarius]

In Greek literature the Archer was frequently represented as a centaur, although this is not mentioned by Aratus, who says merely that when the sun scorches the bow and the archer it is a time of storm; the sailor should not sail at night but put into shore in the evening. This is one of the zodiacal signs that is probably of Babylonian origin. The Babylonian archer was depicted with wings, which in Greek times became a mantle or cloak. In Islamicate representations of the Ptolemaic constellation, there is usually a fluttering end of a head band or band of a turban, while al-Bīrūnī says he has long tresses. The mythographers noted that while some called it a Centaur others did not because centaurs did not use arrows. The legend given was that he was Crotus, son of Euphene, nurse of the Muses. He was very clever in the arts, for which reason the Muses requested Zeus to represent him in a star group. Zeus added the arrow to represent his keenness.

The title of the constellation on the Manuchihr globe is kawākib al-rāmī (the constellation of the archer). The star in the eye is labeled ‘ayn al-rāmī (the eye of the archer) and was considered nebulous [ν1,2 Sgr]. The star near the hoof of the lower front leg is labeled ‘urqūb al-rāmī (the archer’s tendon) [β1,2 Sgr]. Al-Ṣūfī says this important star was placed on astrolabes even though it is less than fourth magnitude, correcting Ptolemy’s magnitude of two. The star on the knee of the same leg is labeled rukbat al-rāmī (the archer’s knee [α Sgr]); Al-Ṣūfī also corrects its magnitude. The star at the southern tip of the bow [ε Sgr; Kaus Aust] is labeled zujj al-sahm (arrowhead).

Constellation 31. al-jadī, The Goat [Capricornus]

The tenth zodiacal sign, Capricorn, is also unquestionably of Babylonian origin; says Emilie Savage-Smith. It was seen originally as a sea-goat, most often drawn with the tail of a fish. In Greek it was called Horned Goat, and according to one Greek legend was the Cretan goat-nymph named Amaltheia who reared Zeus in the cave of Dicte on the Aegean Hill. Others say it was Aegipan who had cared for Zeus. He was said to have frightened the Titans by his braying. The lower part of his body is shaped as a fish since he hurled shellfish, instead of stones, against his enemy. Mythographers also said he was Pan whom Egyptian priests had said threw himself into a river thereby making the lower part of his body a fish while the rest of his body remained a goat. In this way he escaped the monster Typhon, and Zeus, admiring his cunning, placed him among the constellations.

In the Islamic world it was called al-jadī (the goat), a name which he bears in the title of the constellation (kawākib al-jadī) and also as the title of the House of Capricorn (burj al-jadī) along the ecliptic. Al-Bīrūnī criticizes the use of this word for the constellation since it literally means a kid or young goat, suggesting instead the word tays (adult male goat). Nonetheless, the former is the usual title of the constellation.

Capricorn is comprised of 28 formed stars. On the Manuchihr globe the brightest of the two, considered to be of third magnitude (the one closest to the tail; δ Cap), is labeled dhanab al-jadī (the tail of the goat). The two stars in its head, the one at the base of the inside horn and the larger one below the three on the horns, both considered of less than third magnitude, gave their names to the twenty-second lunar mansion. These two [α1,2, β Capricorni] were called sa‘d al-dhābiḥ, the meaning of which, as with all the sa‘d lunar mansions, has become so obscure with time that it is virtually impossible to translate it. A very rough translation might be “the omen of sacrifice”.

Constellation 32. sākib al-ma’ , The Water-Pourer [Aquarius]

Emilie Savage-Smith says this zodiacal constellation is called by Aratus The Water-Pourer, of which he says that when the sun is in him “the sailor should avoid the open sea, for fierce are the south winds then and hard the frost”. Later mythographers identified him with Deucalion (who reigned when the great flood took place) or Ganymede (cupbearer to the gods), but the simple “water-pourer” is retained in the Ptolemaic catalog. In the Ptolemaic constellation the flow of water streams into the mouth of another constellation, Piscis Austrinus.

The title of the constellation reads kawākib sākib al-ma’ (the constellation of the pourer of water), and contains 42 formed stars and three unformed stars. The unformed stars can be seen near the second bend of the stream of water, between the water and the tip of the tail of the sea-monster Cetus. One of the them, directly below the two that lie close together is so tarnished it is difficult to make it out; these three stars are today considered a part of the constellation Cetus.

Constellation 33. al-samakatayn, The Fish [Pisces]

Savage-Smith states the concept of water dominates again this area of the zodiac as it had with the preceding sign, Aquarius. The fishes, Aratus says are placed one higher, more to the north, than the other and thus it louder hears the fresh rush of the north wind. From both there stretch, as it were, chains, whereby their tails on either side are joined. The meeting chains are knit by a single beautiful and great star, which is called the Knot of the Tails. Let the left shoulder of Andromeda be the guide to the northern Fish, for it is very near.

Mythographers relate the story that Venus and her son Cupid came to the river Euphrates in Syria where the monster Typhon appeared. They both threw themselves into the river and became fishes. For this reason the Syrians stopped eating fish for fear they would seem to oppose the protection of the gods and so they would not catch the gods themselves.

On the Manuchihr globe the constellation bears the title kawākib al-samakatayn (the constellation of the Two Fishes), engraved under the head of the western fish. This is the common title for both the constellation and zodiacal house and is the traditional Bedouin term for the region which replaced the term al-samakatayn (the two fishes), which had been used to translate the Ptolemaic title.

Clearly the Bedouin image was of one large fish in this area, no doubt deriving from a Babylonian image which was also the source for the two fishes of the Greek world. According to the star catalogs the constellation consists of 34 formed stars. The constellation also has four unformed stars, two of which are in the ecliptic beneath the western fish and two just south of the ecliptic near the tip of the tail of Cetus.

No star in Pisces on the Manuchihr globe is labeled. There is written near the chest of Andromeda baṭn al-ḥūt (the belly of the fish). This term refers to the star on Andromeda’s waist closest to Pisces [β Andromedae, Mirach], and arose from a Bedouin conception of a large fish lying across the area of Andromeda. This star gives its name to the twenty-eighth lunar mansion, and as such was also called in the anwā’ tradition al-rishā’ (the rope). The prominent star mentioned by Aratus as the Knot of the Tails is probably the third in the band between the fishes, counting from the eastern fish. This star [α Piscium] was called by al-Ṣūfī ‘aqd al-khayṭayn (the knot of the two ties) from the Ptolemaic image. Though it is the brightest star of the constellation, it does not seem to have had as important a role in Bedouin terminology, for it bears no traditional Arab name and is not labeled on any globes. The modern name for the star is El Rischa, from the name of Lunar Mansion 28. Arab astronomers and writers of anwā’ literature, however, did not use this term for α Piscium, but only for β Andromedae, where it does not mean a knot, but a rope, arising from the conception of a bucket in nearby Pegasus.

Constellation 34. al-qītus [Cetus]

Savage-Smith says the southern constellations (those south of the ecliptic) represent for the most part signs of darkness, evil spirits, and toil that populate the vast ocean or deep into which the heavenly bodies sink and through which sailors must struggle. The first southern constellation was called by Aratus “the mighty sea-monster”, “the hated sea-monster”, and “the dark-blue Cetus”, Cetus being the Latin transliteration of the Greek κἡτος. Aristotle used the word for any animal of the whale kind, “whales dolphin and all spouting cetacea”. Mythographers associated the sea-monster with the monster sent by Poseidon to kill Andromeda. The constellations of Andromeda and Perseus who saved her are due north of the constellation Cetus, whose head is just south of the Ram, Aries. Thus his head is north of the equator.

In the Islamic world the Ptolemaic constellation was called al-qītus, a transliteration of the Greek name. In the Greek world the constellation was most frequently seen as a whale, while in the Islamic world it was often depicted like a “senmurvs,” an oriental winged dragon, and almost always shown wearing a collar. On the Manuchihr globe it has a dog’s head, two claw feet, and a feathered fish tail. The constellation is labeled kawākib al-qītus and consists of 22 formed stars, including the one in the hair, next to the leg of Aries, and also the four on the chest, which are shared with the River (Eridanus).

The star on the northern tip of the tail, closest to the equator, is titled dhanab al-qītus (the tail of Cetus [ι Cet]). The star name reflects the Ptolemaic schema and it is called today Deneb Kaitos, derived from this Arabic title. The title of the star on the southern part of the tail is al-ḍafda‘ al-thānī (the second frog [β Cet]). The star is given the name in the Bedouin tradition and known today as Diphda.

In the Bedouin tradition, the first six stars of the constellation in the head and the neck, not including the one in the hair, were collectively called al-kaff al-jadhmā’ (the cut-off hand [of al-thurayyā]) and is labeled on the Manuchihr globe. This group of stars was seen as part of the human form of which the Pleiades (called al-thurayyā) formed the center.

Constellation 35. al-jabbār, The Giant [Orion]

According to Emilie Savage-Smith, the second southern constellation is Orion, who for the most part lies north of the celestial equator. The equator passes through the three stars forming the well-known belt of Orion, Orion was one of the five star groups named by Homer and was perhaps the first constellation to which a Greek legend was assigned. Traditionally he was a great hunter, eventually killed by Artemis, according to Homer, or as another tradition has it, by a scorpion (Scorpio) sent by her. Aratus does not describe the figure of Orion, but merely says “Let none who pass him spread out on high on a cloudless night imagine that, gazing on the heavens, one shall see other stars more fair”. Ptolemy described him as he was usually depicted in Greek art: holding in his right hand a staff for flinging at hares (although also used for a shepherd’s staff or crook); a short bent sword or dagger hung from his waist; and a lion’s skin was draped over his left arm. He was also depicted as kneeling in a manner similar to Hercules.

Al-Ṣūfī describes the constellation as “resembling somewhat the form of a man having a head, two upper-arms and two feet; and he is called al-jabbār (the giant) because he has two thrones [a reference to groups of stars in Lepus and Eridanus] and in his hand there is a stick and around his middle a sword”.

On the Manuchihr globe Orion can be seen between and below Taurus and Gemini. The constellation is titled kawākib al-jabbār (the constellation of the giant). The constellation of Orion is comprised of 38 formed stars and no unformed stars. The traditional Bedouin term for the region was al-jawzā’.

The very large star on the eastern shoulder on the Manuchihr globe is given a name: mankib al-yumnā (the right shoulder). The star referred to is [α Orionis], a variable star that is the twelfth brightest star of the heavens. The modern name of the star, Betelgeuse, arose from another name for the star, ibṭ al-jawzā’ (armpit of al-jawzā’). The larger of the two stars next to each other on the west shoulder is labeled mankib al-yusrā [γ Ori, Belletrix].

The large star on the western foot of Orion, which is shared with the River Eridanus into which the figure is stepping, is labeled rijl al-yusrā (the left foot). This star [β Ori, Rigel] is the seventh brightest of the heavens; it was also called by al-Ṣūfī rā‘ī al-jawzā’ (the shepherd of al-jawzā’).

The star on the knee on which he is resting is labeled rijl al-yumnā. The modern name of the star, Saiph [κ Ori], is derived from the name given by al-Ṣūfī to the three stars [c θ1,2 ι Ori] composing the dagger, sayf al-jabbār (the sword of the giant), which is also labeled, a name clearly derived after the introduction of the Ptolemaic constellations. The Bedouin term for these three stars was al-jawzā’. Two of the stars, θ1,2 ι Ori, comprise the asterism known today as the Sword of Orion. The three stars forming the famous asterism of the Belt of Orion, δεζ Ori, were called in Greek χἀριτες (the [three] Graces). one of the three stars is labeled minṭaqat al-jawzā’ (the belt of al-jawzā’), from which the modern name of δ Ori, Mintaku, is derived.

Constellation 36. al-nahr, The River [Eridanus]

According to Emilie Savage-Smith, Aratus was the first to name this winding constellation that has the form of a river, speaking of the poor remains of Eridanus as a river swollen with tears. The legend referred to is that of the river Po, into which Phaethon fell when struck by Zeus’s thunderbolt and where his sisters the Heliades wept for him. The river Eridanus was partly burnt up, hence the “poor remains”. Eudoxus had called it simply “river”, and later writers associated it with the Rhone or the Rhine and even the Nile and Oceanus. The river twists from the forward foot of Orion over to Cetus the Sea-Monster, where it shares four stars; it turns toward Lepus the Hare and then back under the feet of Cetus.

On the Manuchihr globe the constellation is titled kawākib al-nahr (the constellation of the River). The constellation is composed of 34 formed stars, not including the 4 shared with Cetus. There are no unformed stars. The only star labeled is the one at the end of the river, beneath the feet of Cetus. This star is labeled ākhir al-nahr (the end of the river [θ Eridani, Acamar]). This is not the star bearing today the name Achernar [α Eridani], the ninth brightest star of the heavens.

Constellation 37. al-arnab, The Hare [Lepus]

According to Emilie Savage-Smith, beneath the feet of Orion is the hare, continually pursued by the hunter (Orion) and his dog (Sirius) which is to the east of Lepus. The mythographers said that Hermes placed the hare among the constellations because of its swiftness. Hyginus gives the account of the extreme multiplication of the hares on the Island of Leros, after which the constellation was placed in the heavens so men could remember “that nothing is so desirable in life but that later they might experience more grief than pleasure from it”.

The Ptolemaic name of the constellation was translated literally into Arabic as ṣūrat al-arnab, or kawākib al-arnab (the constellation of the hare) as it is labeled on the Manuchihr globe. The constellation is composed of 12 formed stars and no unformed ones. The modern name of the star on the front shoulder, α Leporis, is Arneb or Alarneb, from the Arabic name for the constellation.

Constellation 38. al-kalb al-akbar, The Greater Dog [Canis Major]

The brightest star in this constellation, which is the brightest in all the sky, was mentioned by Homer and called by the name σέιριος (the scorcher). The later Latin name was Sirius. It was said of the star that it was “a baleful sign for it brings to suffering mortals much fiery heat”, for when it rises with the sun it marks the season of greatest heat. Homer mentioned also that it was the star men call the Dog of Orion. Hesiod speaks of Sirius when he says:

In the exhausting season of summer; then is when goats are at their fattest, when the wine tastes best, women are most lascivious, but the men’s strength fails them most, for the star Sirius shrivels them, knees and heads alike, and the skin is all dried out in the heat.

By the time of Aratus this star “that keenest of all blazes with a searing flame” was seen as part of a constellation and marked the jaw of the Dog, which was the faithful hound of the Hunter Orion. The star is still called the dog-star and the days of greatest heat the dog-days.

In the Islamic world the Ptolemaic constellation was called al-kalb al-akbar (the Greater Dog). The constellation of Canis Major is comprised of 18 formed stars and 11 unformed ones. On the Manuchihr globe i is labeled kawākib al-kalb al-akbar (the constellation of the Greater Dog). The large star on the upper front paw is labeled al-mirzam and is β Canis Majoris (Almirzam or Murzim).

Al-Ṣūfī says of it, “it is a constellation of a dog behind the constellation of al-jawzā’ (a figure in the area of Orion) and the constellation of the Hare, for which reason it is called kalb al-jabbār (the dog of the giant, Orion). In his catalog, al-Ṣūfī says that the brilliant star in the jaw, Sirius, is called al-kalb (the dog), following Ptolemy. In his discourse on the constellation al-Ṣūfī presents the traditional Bedouin imagery for this region in which two Sirii were seen. The traditional Arabic word used for α Canis Majoris was shi‘rā, which apparently comes from a source, probably Babylonian, that it shared in common with the Greek term σέιριος. In Arabic the word has little meaning that seems appropriate, except perhaps as interpreted as “to have a distinctive mark”, i.e. to be distinctive, or possibly shaggy, unkemp hair, which Drechsler suggests could apply to the radiant appearance of Sirius. On the Manuchihr globe Sirius is labeled shi‘rā al-yamānī (the Yemenite [southern] Sirius).

Constellation 39. al-kalb al-aṣghar, The Lesser Dog [Canis Minor]

The constellation of Canis Minor consists of only two formed stars and is placed beneath Gemini and Cancer, which can be seen to the north. The dog lying north of the celestial equator, like the greater dog that is directly south of the equator, follows the constellation of Orion and was considered one of the hunter’s companions. In the Homeric literature neither this constellation nor either of its stars is mentioned, while Aratus refers only to the larger of the two stars, calling it προκὐων, which shines brightly beneath the twins; the name literally means “before the dog” and refers to the fact that this star rises before the dog-star Sirius in Canis Major. The Greek word is the source of the modern name of the star Procyon. By the time of Ptolemy the star had, with the nearby star, become part of a recognized constellation, itself having the form of a dog.

In the Islamic world the constellation was commonly given the name al-kalb al-aṣghar (the lesser dog) from the Ptolemaic conception of the constellation. On the Manuchihr globe it is labeled kawākib al-kalb al-aṣghar (the constellation of the Lesser Dog).

The Arabic terminology for the two stars reflects the earlier traditional Bedouin ideas of the heavens. The larger star, Procyon, the eighth brightest of the sky, is labeled shi‘rā al-Shāmī (the Levantine [northern] Sirius).

The smaller star in the neck of the dog is labeled al-mirzam [β Canis Minoris]. This is one of two stars labeled al-mirzam, probably meaning companion, the other one being in Canis Major.