A celestial globe commissioned by Abu al-Fatḥ Manuchihr Khan, Governor of Khurasan, signed by Hasan ibn Sa‘d al-Qa‘īnī, Master Mālik Husayn Naqqāsh Isfahānī, and Rezvan Beg Zarneshan, Mashhad, Persia, dated: 1043 AH / 1632-33 AD.
Provenance:
Wan Dengah Ben Salih Adilnor, Kuala Terengganu, Malaya, bought in Mecca in 1327 AH / 1909 AD. His note book about the globe etc. written in Classic Malay with Jawi alphabet, which is no longer in use today in Malaysia, Page 1, reads:
“Milik Wan Dengah Ben Salih Adilnor,
Kuala Terengganu, sanah 1327
Catatan tentang kurah langit
dan gambar-gambar bintang di langit”
(Owned by Wan Dengah Ben Salih Adilnor,
Kuala Terengganu, year 1327 AH
Notes about a celestial globe
and constellations in the sky)
On Page 2-3 reads:
“Kurah langit yang aku beli dari Makkah al-Mukarramah ini,
aku belinya dari seorang Hindi dari Rajasthan
bersama dengan sebiji kurah langit yang lain, juga lima
buah buku Arab tulisan tangan tentang ilmu falak
dan hisab. Kurah kangit ini dibuat untuk
raja negeri mashhad di Faris, namanya Manouchihr Khan, pada
tahun Ghayn Mim Jim. Huruf Ghayn itu bererti seribu,
Mim itu bererti empatpuluh, Jim itu bererti
tiga, mengikut nilai huruf hijaan Arab. Itu
bererti kurah ini dibuat pada tahun 1043,
iaitu dah lebih pada tiga ratus tahun. Kurah langit
ini dilukis dan diguris dan dihias dengan
perak. Adapun perak itu melaksanakan bintang-
bintang di langit. Dan gambar-gambar di atas kurah
itu bermacam-macam rupa, mengikut apa yang dicatat dalam
buku Abdulrahman al-Sufi ….. ”
(This celestial globe, which I bought in Makkah al-Mukarramah, I bought it from an Indian man from Rajasthan, together with another globe and five manuscripts written in Arabic on Astronomy and Mathematics. The globe was made for a ruler of Mashhad in Persia, whose name was Manouchihr Khan, in the year Ghayn Mim Jim. The letter Ghayn is 1000, Mim is forty and Jim is three, according to the values of the Arabic Abjad numerals. This means it was made in 1043, more than three hundred years ago. The celestial globe was drawn, engraved and decorated with silver. The silver dots represent stars in the sky, meanwhile the images on the surface of the globe are various as what have been registered in the book of ‘Abd al-Raḥman al-Ṣūfī….)
The following pages are notes about the 48 constellations following by al-Arjūzah, the poetic work on the constellations by Ibn al-Sufi.
The Manuchihr globe
Cast in two hemispheres, seam at right angles to ecliptic, passing through Boötes (al-‘awwā’), visible from inside as well. The seam is well done and not very visible from the surface.
The ecliptic and the equator are indicated by single lines (great circles). These circles are not graduated, but they have small dots embossed along them, at approximately 1°-intervals. There are ecliptic-latitude-measuring circles. Holes have been drilled at both the ecliptic poles and the equatorial poles.
A circular area has been removed from the globe, with the result that the head of the constellation Hydra (al-shujā‘) is now missing. There appears to be some surface staining and there is an area of abrasion near Ursa Major (al-dubb al-akbar) and above Virgo (al-‘adhrā’).
Diameter: 26.5 cm.
Weight:
A Persian inscription in a medallion beneath the south celestial pole, deeply engraved in an elegant nasta’liq reads as following:
“Bi-rasmi ketabkhan-e navvab mustatab, Manuchihr Khan, mu’alla alqāb, khodayegani, Amir al-Umara-i beglarbegi, Mashhad muqaddas adāma Allah ta’āla ayyama dawlatihi wa ma’delat, bande ye-jani Hasan bin Sa’d al-Qa’ini, bittifāq nādir-i al-‘asr wa l-zamān, Ustadh Mālik Husayn Naqqāsh ve Rezvān Beg Zarneshan, dar shuhur sanat ghamj hijri be-etmām rasanid”.
(By order of the library of the highly appreciated governor Manuchihr Khan, the noble, patronage of Prince of the Princes of Mashhad, God bless his government and his equity, the humble (slave): Hasan ibn Sa‘d al-Qa‘īnī, with the uncontested rarity of the Era and the time: Master Malik Husayn Naqqash (the painter), and Rezvan Beg Zarneshan (the Silversmith/ Inlayer), finished in the months of the year ghamj hijri.)
The date of the globe is indicated in abjad: غمج (AH 1043) which is unusual. According to Savage-Smith, all the globes made before the sixteenth century were dated in abjad letters, and those made in the sixteenth century and later are dated in standard numerals. The exceptions to this patterns are the Manuchihr globe and the anonymous globe made in 1056 AH/1646-47 AD, conserved in the Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore (Inv.54.712.), see: Savage-Smith, 1985, p.216 and cat.65, p.250.
In the sixteenth century, the Safavid rulers were famous for their patronage of art. Mashhad gained even more recognition, becoming the most important city of the Greater Khurasan. Only very few celestial globes from the Safavid period are recorded, and only two, also made in Mashhad by Muhammad Zamān, have a full set of constellations, see: Savage-Smith, 1985, nos.16 and 17, p.226.
The Commissioner of the globe is Abu al-Fatḥ Manuchihr Khan (d. 1636), son of Qarajaqhay Khan (d. 1623), a Safavid ghulam of Georgian origin who became a general and served Shah ‘Abbas I. Like his father, Manuchihr was established at Mashhad as the general and governor of Khurasan under Shah ‘Abbas I and Shah Ṣāfi (r. 1629-1642), see: Schmitz 1992, no.123, p.55 ; Robinson, Sims, Bayani, 2007, p.19. His brother Ali Quli Khan became prefect of Qom and head of the library of Shah ‘Abbas I. Manuchihr Khan’s son, Qarajaqhay Khan (d. 1668), became also a governor of Mashhad. All of them were among the Safavid cultural and intellectual elite, known as “men of knowledge and integrity’ (ahl-i fazl u kamāl) and “of illustrious acts and deeds” (ṣāhib-i mu’āṣir u asrār), see: Babaie, Babayan, Baghdiantz-McCabe, Farhad, 2004, p.127.
Manuchihr Khan commissioned one of the finest illustrated manuscripts of the period, a Persian translation of ‘Abd al-Rahmān ibn ‘Umar al-Ṣūfī’s Ṣuwar al-Kawākib al-Thābitah (the description of the fixed stars), copied between 1630-1633 and conserved in the New York Public Library collection (Spencer, Pers. Ms. 6), see: Schmitz, 1992, p.122.
This manuscript was produced at the same period as the Manuchihr globe and involved the same Patron, astronomer and painter.
In the preface of the Spencer Manuscript by the author Hasan ibn Sa‘d al-Qa‘īnī mentions that Manuchihr Khan was strongly interested in astronomy and that he commissioned the translation of al-Ṣūfī’s treatise into Persian. Al-Qa‘īnī was instructed to correct the measurements in the original copy of al-Ṣūfī’s treatise so that the longitude and latitude of the stars correspond to those seen in the year 1631. The manuscript was copied by Muhammad Baqir al-Hafiz. His name appears in several colophons dating between 1630 and 1632. According to al-Qa‘īnī, once the text was completed, every star or constellation was illustrated by one of Manuchihr Khan’s painters, Ustadh Mālik Husayn, referring to him as “the rarity of his time” (nadir al-asr), see: Babaie, Babayan, Baghdiantz- McCabe, Farhad, 2004, pp.127-128.
Another translation into Persian of al-Ṣūfī’s treatise by Hasan ibn Sa‘d al-Qa‘īnī, conserved in the Egyptian National Library in Cairo (CAIRO, Dar al-Kutub, MMF. 9), is dated 1633-34, see: King, 1986, Plate III; Edwards and Signell, p.13 and no.116, p.52. The illustrations in this copy are similar to the ones in the Spencer manuscript, suggesting that it has been produced in Mashhad, commissioned by Manuchihr Khan and illustrated by Ustadh Mālik Husayn or an artist familiar with him, see: Babaie, Babayan, Baghdiantz-McCabe, Farhad, 2004, p.130. However, there is a discussion about the attribution of the paintings in both manuscripts, suggesting that most of them were executed by the son of Mālik Husayn, Muhammad Ali, rather than by the father, see: Brentjes, 2014, p.492.
Ustadh Mālik Husayn (Isfahani) is an important painter of the Safavid court. He executed a group of paintings in the Windsor Shahname, one of the most famous 17th century manuscripts, see: Newman, 2006, p.90 ; Robinson, Sims, Bayani, 2007, figs. 1B and 1A, pp.24-25. The constellations’ figures on the globe show a high quality of execution and the same aesthetic characteristics as the miniatures in the Spencer manuscript. The illustrations in the Spencer manuscript are considered the most magnificent specimen of the Safavid period, see: Brentjes, 2014, pp.493-495. The famous painter Reza ‘Abbasi was still alive at this time suggesting that he directed the paintings executed by the artist in the Shah ‘Abbas court, see: Grube, 1962, pp.129- 130. Anthony Welch also considered that they are among the most beautiful illustrations found in scientific manuscripts, see: Welch, 1973, pp.76-77 and 82.
The constellations’ figures on the globe are unusually large like the illustrations in the Spencer manuscript. They are stylistically typical of the paintings by the masters of the Safavid court and directed by Reza ‘Abbasi. The Menuchihr globe has the same aesthetic features with very skilfully executed figures.
The metalwork craftsman is Rezvān Beg Zarneshan (Silversmith/Inlayer). He placed the stars with the silver points on the globe. The way the seam has been made and the high quality of the engraving on the globe suggest that Rezvān Beg was an important courtly artist and reflect a professional workshop of instrument makers.
Manuchihr’s portrait
One of the illustrations in the manuscript of al-Qa‘īnī that has drawn the attention of art historians is the Sagittarius (al-rāmi). It is supposed to be Manuchihr’s portrait. This was suggested because of the specific features of his turban and face ‘in the guise of a bearded Safavid official’, see: Schmitz, 1992, p.127 and fig. 124. The illustration of this constellation in the Spencer manuscript shows many features akin to the figure on the Manuchihr globe. Indeed the face is similar, the figure seems to portray an official with flowing scarves and a waistband covering the join of the animal and the human forms like in the Spencer manuscript.
This zodiacal sign has additional significations. In fact, according to Jalāl al-Dīn Munajjim, Abbas I transformed Isfahan to the Empire’s new capital around the beginning of Safar 1000 (mid November 1591), which falls under the sign of Sagittarius. The choice of this sign to portray Manuchihr Khan could be explained by his wish to invoke a parallel between Shah Abbas I and himself.
The portrayal of Manuchihr Khan as Sagittarius may also indicate his own birth sign, which would have linked him to Isfahan, the new centre of the Safavid cultural, political and religious power. See: Babaie, Babayan, Baghdiantz-McCabe, Farhad, 2004, p.129 and note 61, p.188.
Manuchihr Khan’s command to update, translate and illustrate al-Ṣūfī’s treatise, along with our celestial globe, certainly involved a group of the most important artists, who either were permanently staffed at the the governor’s library or may have been employed for the project, see: Babaie, Babayan, Baghdiantz-McCabe, Farhad, 2004, p.129.
Both the globe and the two magnificent manuscripts confirm that Manuchihr Khan was a leading art patron, with a strong curiosity and interest in astronomy. They demonstrate the importance of Mashhad as an art production centre producing prestigious and crowning achievements.
The names of the twelve zodiacal signs are given near each zodiacal sign, always including the term burj (a sign of zodiac), which is not usually found on globes. The twelve zodiacal signs are:
- Burj ḥamal (Aries), longitude 0°
- Burj thawr (Taurus), longitude 30°
- Burj jawzā’ (Gemini), longitude 60°
- Burj saratān (Cancer), longitude 90°
- Burj asad (Leo), longitude 120°
- Burj sunbulah (Virgo), longitude 150°
- Burj mīzān (Libra), longitude 180°
- Burj ‘aqrab (Scorpio), longitude 210°
- Burj qaws (Sagittarius), longitude 240°
- Burj jadī (Capricornus), longitude 270°
- Burj dalw (Aquarius), longitude 300°
- Burj ḥūt (Pisces), longitude 330°
The 48 classical constellations are depicted on the Manuchihr globe. Each constellaion is labelled using the relatively unusual term kawākib for ‘constellation’ instead of the common ṣūrah, for instance; kawākib al-‘adhrā’ for Virgo, kawākib al-asad for Leo, kawākib al-dubb al-aṣghar for Ursa Minor, or kawākib al-samakatayn for the constellation Pisces (but burj-i hūt for the zodiacal sign of Pisces).
There are approximately 1022 stars + 3 in Coma Berenices, visible above northern hand of Virgo. It is not clear whether the ‘overlooked’ star in the tail of Ursa Major has been included or not, for the area appears to be damaged.
The stars are inlaid silver studs, with some attempt to differentiate the ‘size’ of stars by the size of the silver studs. They have been placed after the outlines of the constellation images. Approximately 50 stars are given individual names.
While most of the iconography follows those that found on other recorded Islamic celestial globes, allowing for variation in regional depiction of clothing, there are some distinctive features found on this globe:
Virgo (al-‘adhrā’), for example, faces South rather than North and has a rather unusual hair and clothing. Virgo also holds an ear of wheat in the southern hand with the star labelled simāk al-a‘zal, and while this is occasionally found on other globes, it is quite rare. Also, the three stars of Coma Berenices are visible above the northern hand of Virgo, and these also are relatively rare on globes.
Corona Borealis (kawākib al-fakkah) is represented as a crescent moon, and this is most unusual, if not unique.
Cetus (al-qītus) is unusually ornate in its depiction.
Aquarius (sākib al-mā’) holds an unusual device from which he is pouring the water.
Andromeda (al-mar’ah al-musalsalah), however, is the most unusual figure on this globe. The fact that the figure is viewed from behind suggests some European influence in the iconography, for Islamic depictions, and all recorded Islamic globes, show the figure frontally. There is no indication of the chains which should bind her feet together. It is in fact not clear whether this is a male or female figure. It has been drawn to a larger size than it should be, extending a bit too far north and south, although the stars in it remain more-or-less properly positioned. As a result of this elongation, for example, the star rijl al-musalsalah (the foot of the chained woman) is placed at the back of the left knee rather than on the foot, as it is on other globes.
Moreover, the torso of Andromeda overlaps with the face of the northern fish of the constellation Pisces (al-samakatayn, al-ḥūt), whereas the fish should be just nestled up to the side of Andromeda.
The quality of workmanship displayed in this globe is of the highest quality. There are only two other recorded Safavid celestial globes that have a full set of constellation images, and these were both also made in Mashhad, by Muhammad Zamān in 1050 AH (1640-41 AD) and 1054 AH (1644-45 AD). The former is now in the V&A (inv. no. M. 827-1928) while the latter was last recorded as being in a private collection in Kuwait (photographs were available in 1980).
Although also made in Mashhad, the design of these globes by Muhammad Zamān, the depictions of the constellation images and the methods of engraving, are strikingly different from the Manuchihr globe. Consequently, we now have evidence of two major workshops of instrument-makers active in Mashhad in the first half of the 17th century.
About the Manuchihr globe Prof. Dr. Sonja Brentjes says:
“The re-surfacing of this splendid specimen of a celestial globe is a marvellous gift to all who are seriously interested in intellectual history of post-Mongol Islamicate societies and in particular of the Safavid dynasty. It illustrates that education, politics, art patronage, artisanal and artistic excellence had formed a strong bond. This unification of a broad range of cultural activities in the courtly spheres of the Ilkhanids, Timurids, Mughals, Ottomans, Safavids and other Muslim dynasties provided the context for the creation of a scholarly tradition of the mathematical sciences, astrology, philosophy, medicine and the so-called occult sciences that thrived as a program of elite education, luxurious display of power and wealth and as a culture of gift-giving and political rivalry. Claims to scientific excellence in this cultural function of the sciences serve for binding the sciences to the other mentioned expressions of excellence, but do not necessarily literally reflect a culture of scientific research practice as stated in the preface of Qa‘īnī’s Persian translation of ‘Abd al-Raḥmān al-Ṣūfī’s work on star constellations. Both the globe and the two illustrated manuscript copies of Qa‘īnī’s translation encourage us, however, to spend more time with them and investigate their claims, mastership and affiliations to earlier Ilkhanid and Timurid works of the same genre.
They also invite us to rethink the history of the sciences in the Safavid period and to dedicate the same kind of careful study to such specimens of scholarly knowledge and cultural practice as we have done so successfully in the last decades with regard to prime specimens of scientific innovation and excellence created in Islamicate societies of the classical period between India and the Iberian Peninsula. It would be wonderful if the private owners of such impressive pieces reflecting the rich cultural past of the sciences in Islamicate societies would support us in this task and share their collections generously with the academic world and the public.”
The Manuchihr Globe 